Chandra & David Courtney

Biography of David Courtney

David Courtney, Ph.D. has been performing on the tabla since 1972. He first studied pakhawaj (an ancient barrel shaped drum) under the famous Zakir Hussain at the Ali Akbar College of Music. He then moved to India and spent a number of years learning tabla under the late Ustad Shaik Dawood Khan of Hyderabad. He has performed extensively on stage, TV, disk, and radio, in India, Europe and the United States. Along with his wife, he composed the theme music for Houston's Indian TV program called "ASIANA" and recorded the theme music for the radio program "INDIA FILE" which aired in the Austin area. He has accompanied many great musicians including Ashish Khan, Lakshmi Shankar, and Pandit Jasraj

He is well versed in the academic side of music. During the 80s he received great acclaim in academic circles for his pioneering work in the application of computers to Indian music. This work is found in his doctoral dissertation "A Low Cost System for the Computerization of North Indian Classical Music". He is the author of numerous books and articles on the subject of Indian music including, Introduction to Tabla, Elementary North Indian Vocal, Learning the Tabla, Fundamentals of Tabla, Advanced Theory of Tabla, Manufacture and Repair of Tabla and Focus on the Kaidas of Tabla. His articles have appeared in "Modern Drummer" and "Percussive Notes". He is presently on the Board of Directors of the Texas Institute for Indian Studies. Recently along with his wife Chandra, he was given an award of recognition for outstanding contributions to the arts by the American Telugu Association.

He is very active today in musical activities. He is an artist with Young Audiences. He is also the percussionist in the fusion group Vani, and has several CDs to his credit. Recently he composed and performed some music for the film "Dancing in Twilight", a film staring Erick Avari, Louise Fletcher, Mimi Rogers, Kal Penn, Sheetal Shet.

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INTRODUCTION

The tabla is a pair of drums which has become synonymous with north Indian percussion (figure 1. below). Although the tabla is probably not more than two to three centuries old, it has assumed an important role in this ancient system of music. For many generations material has been transmitted orally from teacher to disciple. In this way numerous compositions and compositional forms have arisen.

This myriad of styles and compositional forms essentially break down into two philosophies; cyclic and cadential (Stewart 1974). The cyclic form rolls along and does not imply or require a resolution. This class includes such common examples as theka, rela, or kaida. In contrast, the cadential form requires a resolution. It is the cadential material which is the topic for this work.

There are numerous traditional types which may be considered a cadence. Unfortunately the nomenclature is often conflicting and overlapping. It will be seen in this paper that such confusion often arises because different criteria is used for the definition. When one understands the criteria upon which a compositional form is defined, the confusion is minimized.


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BACKGROUND
It is necessary to have a firm background in the basics of Indian rhythm before we discuss the cadence. Although a complete discussion of Indian theory and notation is not possible here, we will cover the fundamentals. These are the system of mnemonics; abstract concepts of time and rhythm; and concepts of structure.

The system of mnemonics, known as bol, is perhaps the most distinctive characteristic of Indian percussion. Bols such as Dha, Dhin TiRiKiTa are used both as a basis for notation as well as a mnemonic (Courtney 1980). The word bol is so attached to the strokes that it has come to mean both the verbal recitation as well as the performance of the strokes.

An analysis of these bols show two overall styles. One of these styles shows the influence of an ancient barrel shaped drum known as pakhawaj. Another style has obscure origins, variously attributed to naggada (Stewart 1974), dholak, dholki or any of a variety of folk sources. Efforts to attribute this style to any particular drum are inconclusive. The usual approach used by Indian musicians is to simply refer to them as "tabla bols". Although this approach may be unsatisfactory from an academic standpoint we will use this convenient convention in this work.

The various bols are important for Indian percussion, however they must be placed within the context of rhythmic theory. India has a highly developed time theory based upon beats (matra), measures (vibhag) and cycles (avartan)(Courtney 1993).

The matra is the fundamental unit of rhythm. Matra is directly translatable to the word beat. It does not specify any absolute time value but instead may have a broad spectrum of values. This is because there are a wide range of tempi in Indian music and the time value for the matra changes accordingly. Although matra is the smallest theoretical unit it should be noted that it may be subdivided according to ones convenience.

The next higher structural unit is the vibhag. Vibhag is analogous to the Western concept of measure or bar. Unlike the Western measure, the Indian vibhag implies certain concepts of clapping. A vibhag may be described as tali which means "to be clapped", or khali which is denoted by a wave of the hand. It is this system of clapping and waving which lies at the core of Indian timekeeping. Indeed the Sanskrit word tal means both abstract rhythm as well as the clapping of hands (Apte 1933).

The avartan is the highest structural component and is the most important concept for our discussion of the cadenza. The avartan is the cycle of Indian music. Common cycles are composed of 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16 beats.



Figure 2. Tintal Theka

Figure 2 illustrates these various points. The more usual notation is shown in a Sanskrit (Devnagri) while Western elements have been added for the benefit of the non-Indian reader. The example shows a common tal known as tintal. We see that it is composed of four vibhag, of four matras each, for a total of 16 matras. The individual strokes are specified with the bol (i.e., Dha, Dhin, etc.). One should notice that the beginning of each measure is designated by a symbol (i.e., cross, number or zero). These indicate the clapping arrangement (tali). The waves of the hand (khali) are designated with a "0" while the claps are designated with a number. The number designates a first clap, second clap, third clap, etc. One cannot help but notice that the first clap was not designated with "1" but a cross. The use of a cross for the first vibhag is very significant. The first beat of the cycle is referred to as sam. In Sanskrit the word sam means "with", "together", or "common" (Apte 1933).

There is an interesting relationship between this basic timekeeping and the performance. One may find alternation between blinding bursts of speed and slow simple accompaniment. Yet through all of these alternations, the basic rhythm usually does not change. Therefore, this sets up a situation where we have two rhythms going on simultaneously. One rhythm is the abstract basic tal indicated by the claps and waves. The other one is the actual performed piece. The relationship between the performed and the abstract is referred to as layakari. Common layakari are single-time, double-time, triple-time, etc. One also finds interesting layakari such as three-beats-over-two, seven-beats-over-four, etc.

Indian percussion is more than notational and rhythmic theory; there is also an extensive theory of composition. Although tabla is famous for its improvisation one must not think of improvisation in Western terms. It is never totally free-form but rather an extemporaneous composition within well defined rules and compositional forms. These have names like kaida, rela, peshkar, tihai and a host of others which are unfamiliar to the average Western musician.

Although there are many compositional forms there are really only two overall classes; cyclic and cadential. These mutually exclusive classes are based upon simple philosophies. The cyclic class is that which rolls along without any strong sense of direction. These include our basic accompanying patterns (theka and prakar); formalized theme and variation (kaida); and a host of others which are not within the scope of this article. One may generally ascribe a feeling of balance to this class. In contrast, the cadential class has a feeling of imbalance. It moves forward to an inevitable point of resolution, usually on the sam. Common cadenzas are the tihai, mukhada, paran and a host of others which will be discussed in this paper.

The terms tihai, paran, mukhada, etc. create many difficulties for the student of Indian music. One inevitably encounters contradictions, overlapping definitions, and vagaries which are disturbing to a Westerner who desires the theoretical system to be neat and clean. It is the purpose of this article to show that the system of nomenclature is not quite as vague as it appears. The contradiction in terms occasionally result from differing musical subtraditions. In the old days there arose different dialects of tabla. Geographical isolation created differences in style and nomenclature. Today these differences are being slowly worked out, largely due to the efforts of educators to create an organized syllabus for the music colleges (Courtney 1992). Although it is largely resolved at the academic level, individual musicians often do not have an academic background. Therefore one tends to find more confusion at the level of the rank and file musician.

We may now summarize the important aspects of the Indian rhythmic system. Pivotal to this system is the use of mnemonics known as bol. The various bols are assembled into larger material which falls into certain forms. Philosophically, this material may be cyclic or cadential. All compositions must adhere to the basic rules of time theory. Such time theory is based upon cycles, measures and beats. Within this framework, the first beat of the cycle has a special significance for it is the point of resolution. This background is essential for the forthcoming discussion of the criteria used to define the compositional forms.

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Hello, and welcome to our homepage. We are "Vani", a musical group from Houston, Texas. Our musical tastes range from American Rock to Ragas of India. "Vani" has been doing a spiritually orientated fusion since 1998 with a European tour and numerous USA shows to their credit.

We are (rear L to R) Gus Buzbee, Bob Goldman (front L to R) David Courtney, Chandrakantha Courtney,

Click on our pictures to view our biographies.

Gus Buzbee

Imagine hearing a voice holding a note, and then as if by magic, a second and third piccolo harmonic appears above the first note, floating, then diving into the depths of subharmonics two octaves below the first note. Such is the solo performance of the "one voice chord" by Gus Buzbee. This mystic style has it's origins in the Tibetan form of throat singing. As an acoustic/electric guitarist, Gus Buzbee has been recognized as a musician with the unique ability to fuse many musical forms such as blues, rock, jazz, singer songwriter, mystic chants and Indian ragas, [Voted best acoustic guitarist by "Houston Music Readers' Poll" - Public New and winner of Houston's Best guitarist contest sponsored by Rockin' Robin Guitars]

Cottbus (Germany)

Performance in Cottbus Germany, near the Polish border.

Bavaria

Performance in Southern Germany

Zeuthen

Near the old East Berlin.

http://music.utsa.edu/tdml/conf-I/I-Courtney/I-Courtney.html

Electronic Aids in Indian Music Education

David Courtney, Ph.D.

Texas Institute for Indian Studies

Electronic aids to music education have been a major component of the Western pedagogic process for many years. However the application of high technology has only recently begun in India. Today there is an environment which is ripe for the spread of electronics into the field of music and music education. Applications as diverse as desktop publishing, electronically assisted education (audio/video cassettes) radio and TV programs and a host of electronic gadgets have already entered the educational process.

INTRODUCTION

Technology has had a tremendous impact on music education in the Western world. However the impact upon Indian music is just now being felt. This paper will provide a brief overview of the history, present situation, and future possible applications of electronic aids in the education of Indian music. A brief introduction to Indian music will place things in perspective and make our discussions easier.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

We can appreciate the present situation by having a firm understanding of the development of both Indian music and the Indian electronics industry. We will see that the music of India is an ancient system which is quite different from our own. Furthermore the pedagogic process, which is essentially an apprenticeship, is also quite different from ours. All of this must be seen so that we can appreciate the application of modern technology by India's indigenous electronics industry

The musical tradition of India is one of the oldest in the world. However, within this tradition there are numerous subtraditions, and individual styles. Such a variegated musical environment could make a discussion difficult if it were not for one thing. Just as the Western classical tradition is considered the foundation for musical education; in the same way, the classical music of India is considered the foundation for musical education in India. We need not concern ourself with the multiplicity of musical styles. However we must not forget that there are two classical musical systems in India. There is the north Indian tradition, known as Hindustani sangeet; and there is also the south Indian tradition, known as Carnatic sangeet. Fortunately, the theoretical differences do not effect our discussion.

It is difficult to describe the Indian system of music in a few words. The most fundamental point is that it is a modal system based upon pure tones rather than tempered tones. The drone is an essential component of the music. It is this drone which provides the tonic base upon which the modes may be developed. Unlike Western music, the key is of no theoretical importance. Whether a piece is performed in C, B, F or whatever, is purely a matter of convenience. These pieces are performed in highly developed rhythmic cycles known as tal. These tals are generally large structures of 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, or 16 beats. The basic theory of Indian music is covered in greeater detail in other sources (Courtney 1992a).

This highly developed system requires many years of formal training. This is in the form of an apprenticeship. For many millennia the craft has been passed from teacher to disciple in a process known as guru-shishya-parampara (Courtney 1992b). Although this is still considered the traditional mode of education, in practice the student receives a large amount of information through the electronic media. A clear picture of this media can be seen by looking at the rise of high technology in the country.

The development of India's electronic and technological infrastructure is interesting because it developed largely separate from the world markets. The early days of independence were dominated by the Gandhian concept known as "Swadeshi". Swadeshi is the political and economic concept of self sufficiency. During the independence movement, self sufficiency in the homespun cotton industry was largely responsible for making the continuance of India in the British empire uneconomical. These economic pressures persuaded Britain to grant autonomy. The concept of self sufficiency acquired a socialistic color after independence. Nehru was using the Soviet Union as a model for industrial development. This allowed India to develop an indigenous electronics industry which was unconnected to the world markets. Although this industry was never able to come up to world standards, it did create an environment in which indigenous approaches could be developed for purely Indian musical needs. These will be discussed later. Before we look at these devices which are relevant only to Indian music let us first look at the power of traditional analog approaches.

Established analog technologies already have shown profound effect on the system of education. Analog technologies are commonly used in radio, TV, and tape recorders. Until recently the only radio and TV in India were the government owned "Akashavani", otherwise known as "All India radio; and "Dooradarshan" (TV) (see figure 1). The government has a sustained interest in promoting traditional Indian music. One of the efforts has been occasional broadcasts of educational programs on Indian music.

Figure 1. Early radio broadcast (circa 1938)

Some of the most significant effects have been from the "National Programs". These are performances given by India's top artists which are aired all over the country. An artist may perform something on national TV and within a week, other musicians around the country are doing similar things. What makes this so important is that it introduces a fundamental change in the way musical information is transferred. Previously the only process for transmission of musical material has been from guru to disciple. This is a vertical flow of information known as "Taleem". The use of the electronic media creates a horizontal flow of information which cuts across traditional pedagogic lines (see figure 2).

We may summarize the history of electronics and Indian music quite simply. The music of India is an ancient modal form that is fundamentally different from the Occidental system. For thousands of years the musical material traveled along a simple linear path from teacher to disciple. Cross linkages were rare until relatively recently. The major increase in this horizontal flow of musical information began with the advent of the electronic media. The development of an indigenous electronics industry, essentially cut off from the larger world markets, has had interesting effects on musical electronics. We will now discuss this further

PRESENT APPLICATIONS

It is appropriate for us to take a closer look at the present situation. We find numerous examples of electronic aids being employed in the pedagogic process. Many of these are well entrenched while many others are experimental.

Shruti Generation - Shruti is the drone which is used in Indian music. This was normally provided by a stringed instrument (tamboura) or a small hand pumped reed instrument (Sur peti) However, for over twenty years, electronic sur petis have been in use by many students (figure 3). They have recently been refined to the present day "Electronic Tamboura". In southern India the electronic "Surpeti" or "Shrti Box" has become essential for any music student. It is even used in performances. Although it does not have the same level of popularity in the north, its use is rising fast. These devices are of Indian design and manufacture and have almost no parallel in the electronic instruments of the West.

Figure 3. Electronic "Sur Peti" or "Shruti Box" is used to provide the drone for Indian music.

Lahara Generation - Lahara is a small repeating melody used to accompany drum solos. This function has been traditionally performed by a live musician. However experiments have been going on for some years to replace the human with an electronic equivalent. I have been using computer generated laharas in the pedagogic process since 1988 with very good results (Courtney 1991b).

Theka Generation - This is roughly comparable to the function of a Western drum machine. There are several approaches. The most widespread is a dedicated device called a "Tal Mala" (figure 4). These devices of Indian design and manufacture and give a sound which is comparable to tabla (an Indian drum).

Figure 4. "Tal Mala" is similar to a drum machine which is programmed to give common north Indian rhythms.

I have spent a considerable time working on another course, specifically computer generated theka. Such an approach is presently cost prohibitive in India. However it has certain advantages over the tal mala. The most striking advantage is the natural sound. This is a consequence of the fact that my experiments have been based upon sampled lahara rather than the synthesized version that is a characteristic of the Indian tal mala.

Data Bases - It is possible to take Indian music, quantify it, and encode it to create data bases of rags and compositions. This is philosophically similar to the musical encoding schemes found in MIDI approaches (Courtney 1991). I have spent a considerable amount of time in this area and have found that a higher resolution is required than found in the MIDI protocols (Courtney 1989). These efforts are described in greater detail elsewhere (Courtney 1990).

Desktop Publishing - The field of desktop publishing is one area where the impact of digital technologies may be found. Although the printed text has been an important part of the educational process for many years, market pressures have made it very risky to publish books on Indian music. This risk is somewhat reduced by advances in desktop publishing which drastically reduce the cost of typesetting.

Computer Analysis - Computers have made it possible to analyze Indian music and Indian musical instruments in a way that was never possible before. Spectrum analysis have made it possible to look closely at the sounds of Indian musical instruments and even at the influence that spectral components have upon the development of scale structure and intonation (Carterette 1989)

Basic Music Theory - Computers have been used on several occasions to clarify aspects of music theory. It has been used in areas of intonation (Rao 1989), musical structure (Srinivasan 1979), and virtually every aspect of music theory.

We have seen that electronic technology has been used to produce a number of educational aids. The most common is the tal mala which generates drum beats and the surpeti which generates the drone. The computer has emerged as a major tool for both research, education, and in desktop publishing. With a clear concept of the present usage, we may speculate as to what future applications may be.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Prognostication is always a risky business. However it is safe to say that the computer will play an increasing role in future applications of electronics to the education of Indian music. Clearly all of the components are there; a large base of computer literate personnel coupled with falling hardware prices. The increased availability of hardware and the large number of computer literate people to operate them cannot help but find applications in every field of life, including music.

One possible application is in the area of computer assisted education. Presently public schools may have no music teacher and private schools may have one for several hundred students. Clearly the shortage of teachers could be alleviated with computer assisted education. Even the music colleges (figure 5) which do not have a shortage of teachers could benefit from computer assisted education. Although such an approach clearly is contrary to traditional educational concepts, India has shown a tremendous ability to accommodate new technologies and educational practices (Courtney 1992b).

Another area of possible development is in the area of musicological research. If a standard musical coding scheme can be worked out it opens the possibility of expanding the data bases and using them to investigate various aspects of musical performance and theory.

There are other aspects which would be considered science fiction if it were not for there immediate possibility. For example let us consider the possibility of recreating a musical genus of the past. It is theoretically possible to go back an examine a large body of recordings and create a knowledge base derived from that material. Once the appropriate artificial intelligence structures have been created it should then be possible to feed a new rag into the machine. The computer could then compose a piece in the same style as the deceased musician; even for rags which did not exist during the lifetime of the musician.

CONCLUSION

India is already making significant use of electronics in the process of music education. generation of drones, and rhythms are a commonplace, with experimental efforts at lahara (repetitive melodies), data bases. Computer assisted composition and computer assisted education cannot be far off. However we are only looking at a small number of educational possibilities, many are yet to be thought of. Although India has a tremendous respect for tradition, this respect has never hindered the acceptance of new technologies. Therefore it is highly unlikely that the traditional guru-shishya system will disappear, but it should continue with the new tools of the 21st century.

Figure 5. The music colleges are places which could benefit from computer assisted education.

WORKS CITED

Courtney, David R

1989 "An Indian Music Specific Audio Driver",Journal of the Acoustical Society of India, Calcutta: Vol. 17, No 3&4, December, pp. 269-272.

1990 A Low Cost System for the Computerization of North Indian Classical Music (Dissertation) IIAS, University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor: March 1990: pp. 200: Order Number LD01730.

1991a "MIDI Protocol", Syntax, CHUG Inc., Tomball: Dec./Jan 1991: pp. 14-19.

1991b "The Application of the C=64 to Indian Music: A review", Syntax , Houston: June/July 1991: pp 8-9.

1992a Elementary North Indian Vocal. Sur Sangeet Services, Houston: pp.151

1992b New Approaches to Tabla Instruction. Percussive Notes. Vol 30 No 4: Lawton OK: Percussive arts Society.

Srinivasan, R.

1979 "Computer Approach to the Anaylysis of Musical Scales, Shrutis and Murcchanas", Mathematical and Computer Anaylsis of Raga Structure, Srutis and Murcchanas, Proceedings of the Seminar on Musicology. Feb 26-28. University of Madras:123-141

Rao, S.S., Nawathe, S.P., Bhave, S.S., Atre, Prabha

1989 "A study of Intonation in Hindustani Classical Music"Journal of the Acoustical Society of India, Calcutta: Vol. 17, No 3&4, December, pp. 273-276.

Carterette, Edward; Vaughn, Kathryn; Jairazbhoy, Nazir A

1989 "Perceptual, Acoustical, and Musical Aspects of the Tamboura Drone". Music Perception. Winter 1989, Vol 7, No 2, 75-100, University of California.

Originally posted by: sonyaee

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CARNATIC SANGEET

THE SOUTH INDIAN SYSTEM OF MUSIC

by David Courtney, Ph.D.

INTRODUCTION

Carnatic sangeet, (Karnatik Sangit) is the south Indian system of music. It has a rich history and a very sophisticated theoretical system. The performers and composers have, gained a world class reputation by singing and playing instruments such as veena (vina), gottuvadyam, violin, and mridangam.

In the West, Carnatic Sangeet is not as well known as Hindustani Sangeet (north Indian music). Whenever Westerners think of Indian music, they immediately think of Ravi Shankar and the sitar. Although South Indian music is extremely sophisticated, there has not emerged an artist with the worldwide recognition that North Indians, like Ravi Shankar, have been able to generate.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Carnatic Sangeet is found in the south Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Carnatica. These states are known for their strong presentation of Dravidian culture.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HINDUSTANI AND CARNATIC SANGEET

The reasons for the differentiation between North, and South Indian music is not clear. The generally held belief is that North Indian music evolved along different lines due to an increased exposure to the Islamic world. This results from nearly 800 years of Islamic rule over northern India.

Unfortunately, evidence suggests that this answer is a gross over-simplification. For instance, Kerala has an extremely large Muslim population, but virtually no identification with north Indian music. By the same token, the Islamic influence over Orissa was negligible, yet the artistic forms are clearly identifiable as Hindustani. Although there is a poor correlation between the geographical distribution of Hindus / Muslims and the two musical systems; there is an almost exact correlation between the Indo-European/Dravidian cultures and the two musical systems.

Therefore, we come to the politically uncomfortable, yet inescapable conclusion that the differences between North and South Indian music does not represent a differentiation caused by Islamic influence, but instead represents a continuation of fundamental cultural differences.

HISTORY OF CARNATIC SANGEET

We can begin our discussion of the history of Carnatic Sangeet with Purandardas (1480-1564). He is considered to be the father of Carnatic Sangeet. He is given credit for the codification of the method of education, and is also credited with several thousand songs.

Venkat Mukhi Swami (17th century) is the grand theorist of Carnatic music. He was the one who developed the melakarta system. This is the system for classifying south Indian rags.

Carnatic music really acquired its present form in the 18th century. It was during this period that the "trinity" of Carnatic music, Thyagaraja, Shamashastri, and Muthuswami Dikshitar composed their famous compositions. In addition to our "trinity". Numerous other musicians and composers enriched this tradition. Some notable personalities were; Papanasam Shivan, Gopala Krishna Bharati, Swati Tirunal, Mysore Vasudevachar, Narayan Tirtha, Uttukadu Venkatasubbair, Arunagiri Nathar, and Annamacharya.

CARNATIC MUSIC THEORY

Carnatic music has a very highly developed theoretical system. It is based upon a complex system of ragam (rag) and thalam (tal). These describe the intricacies of the melodic and rhythmic forms respectively.

The melodic foundation is the ragam (rag). Ragam (rag) is basically the scale. The seven notes of the scale are Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha and Ni. However, unlike a simple scale there are certain melodic restrictions and obligations. Each ragam (rag) has a particular way that it moves from note to note.

The ragams are categorised into various modes. These are referred to as mela, and there are 72 in number. The mela are conceptually similar to the thats of North Indian music. There is however, a major difference. South Indian scales allow chromatic forms that are not allowed in Hindustani sangeet. For instance it is perfectly acceptable for the first three notes (i.e., Sa Re Ga to all be roughly one semitone apart. It is these permissible forms which allow there to be so many mela.

The tal (thalam) is the rhythmic foundation to the system. The south Indian tals are defined by a system of clapping and waving, while this is much less important in the north. North Indian musicians define their tals by their theka.

Nomenclature is one of the biggest differences between North and South Indian music. It is normal for a particular rag or tal to be called one thing in the North and something totally different in the South. It is also common for the same name to be applied to very different rags and tals. It is theses differences in nomenclature that have made any theoretical reconciliation difficult.

PERFORMANCE

Vocal music forms the basis of South Indian music. Although there is a rich instrumental tradition that uses vina, venu and violin, they revolve around instrumental renditions of vocal forms.

There are a number of sections to the Carnatic performance. Varanam is a form used to begin many south Indian performances. The word varanam literal means a description and this section is used to unfold the various important features of the ragam. The kritis are a fixed compositions in the rag. They have well identified composers and do not allow much scope for variation. However such compositions are often preceded by alapana. The alapana offers a way to unfold the ragam to the audience, and at the same time, allow the artist considerable scope for improvisation. The niruval and the kalpana swara also provide opportunities to improvise. Another common structure is the ragam, thanam, and, pallavi

South Indian performances are based upon three major sections. These are the pallavi anupallavi and charanam. These roughly correspond to the sthai, antara and the abhog in Hindustani sangeet.

CONCLUSION

The rich tradition of South Indian music is one of the worlds gems. The high performance standards and the well organised theoretical foundation put it on par with anything that world has seen, either East or West.

www.chandrakantha.com