Chandra & David Courtney - Page 4

Originally posted by: Barnali

Qwest can yu tell me if tht link by Sonya is his PdH thesis?

I read it and it;s very informative.too gud in my opinion.

Barnali di. it is Ph.D He also wrote some book on the Indian Music. I will do some posting on later. .

INTRODUCTION TO SPECTRUM ANALYSIS

by David Courtney, Ph.D.

INTRODUCTION

The technique of designing musical instruments has not changed much in the last several thousand years. A maker builds an instrument, listens to the tone, then repeats the entire process with a slight change in construction. This is a tedious process and one often thinks that it could be easier if there was a way to "see" the sound. Spectrum analysis is a tool that gives us the ability to see the timbre. In this article we will discuss its various aspects; including sampling theory, processing, and graphic output.

BACKGROUND

The graphic representation of sound has been an area of interest for years. The earliest experiments focused beams of light against a mirror which was attached to a vibrating object. This technique was used extensively until the twentieth century when the oscilloscope was invented. Both light beams and oscilloscopes give a graphic representation of the vibratory nature of sound.

Musical sounds are usually visualized as "waves" of air that vibrate with a particular frequency. This frequency is expressed in cycles per second; however, instead of saying "cycles per second" we say "Hertz". The range of human hearing is said to extend from 20 Hertz to 20 Kilohertz (i.e., 20 cycles to 20,000 cycles-per-second). This range is referred to as the "audio spectrum".

However, day-to-day sounds and musical sounds consist of a mixture of different frequencies. It is the nature of this mix which helps to determine timbre. Therefore, by looking closely at these component frequencies we get insight into the timbre of any sound. This is spectrum analysis.

The pioneer of spectrum analysis was undoubtedly Hermann von Helmholtz. He developed a series of hollow glass spheres with carefully calibrated resonance frequencies. They would vibrate when excited by the appropriate frequency and one could hear this by placing them against the ear. It was a very tedious process, but with these simple devices he was a pioneer in the field.

The Helmholtz resonators had their problems. The were awkward and the lack of a graphic output meant that only a subjective evaluation of the component frequencies was possible. By the later part of this century they were replaced by totally electronic techniques. Unfortunately, they were very expensive.

However today these once expensive spectrum analyzers are within the reach of the average instrument maker. This is a consequence of the rapid drop in the price of digital electronics. $200 and a personal computer is all that one requires to enter the world of spectrum analysis. Table 1 is a small list of available packages. (NOTE - This article was published in 1992. Products and pricing are not current.)

TABLE 1

We have briefly reviewed what spectrum analysis is. It would be very appropriate to discuss the technical details. One of the most fundamental is the process of taking the sound and putting it into the computer. This is a subject known as sampling.

SAMPLING

If the computer is going to do our work, we have to find some way to get the music into the computer. The hardware and software, with all of the myriad of technical considerations has been the topic of numerous books, and dissertations. However the essentials are surprisingly simple.

The hardware in our sampling process revolves around a specialized peripheral called an Analog-to-Digital converter. This device, usually called A/D converter for short is responsible for taking the analog signal and converting it into discrete numbers that the computer can process. These discrete numbers are our samples

The concept behind sampling is quite simple. The waveform in figure1-A can be sampled and expressed as figure 1-B. This is similar to the operation of a motion picture camera. Just as an event may be captured on film as a series of still frames, so too an audio signal may be captured as a series of discrete values.

The concept may be quite simple but the implementation may be quite complicated. There are a number of factors which must be kept in mind. The two most important are the sampling rate and the resolution.

The sampling rate is an option on most computer systems. But how fast should it be?

We must turn to the Nyquist theorem to help us find the correct sampling rate. It tells us that the sampling rate must be greater then twice the highest frequency to be encountered. Any attempt to sample at a lower rate results in a phenomena known as aliasing.

Aliasing is where the frequencies above the Nyquist point (half the sampling rate) become reflected back down the audio spectrum. This is illustrated in figure 2. It is very much like the movement of the wheels in the old films. If the wheels were moving slowly, the camera has no trouble "sampling" the event. However, as the wheels go faster the apparent motion tends to slow down. At a certain point the wheel appears to stop, thereafter it appears to go backwards. This apparent retrograde motion of the wheels is analogous to the aliasing which occurs in digitized audio signals.

The resolution is another consideration. Most low cost systems default to eight bits. An 8-bit code has 256 possible combinations. Therefore the maximum resolution that one could expect from an 8-bit code is 256 steps. There are systems which are capable of processing up to 16-bit codes. This gives 65,536 possible steps! However these systems cost more than the average instrument maker would be willing to spend. For the purposes of the average craftsman an 8-bit resolution is quite sufficient.

This digitizing process, with all of its considerations is the first step. However merely putting the information into the computer is insufficient to produce any useful result. The data must be processed to yield the frequency information.

PROCESSING

The key to spectrum analysis lies in the computer processes. These processes are variations upon an extremely complicated field of mathematics known as Fourier transforms. The utility of the Fourier transform is underscored by the failure of simpler methods to yield clear information about musical timbre.

The oscilloscope is a classic example of the inadequacy of a simpler technology. Virtually any instrument maker can afford to purchase an oscilloscope. Yet the images that appear fail to give much information about timbre. It fails because the oscilloscope functions in what is called "Time domain" while our perception of timbre depends upon something called "Frequency domain". These are referred to as "inverse domains" of each other.

The concept of the inverse domain may sound very intimidating but it is based upon a simple idea. Let us begin by looking at figure 3. Here is a simple question. Which one is the quarter? We know that both images represent the same object even though they look absolutely nothing alike. Once we accept the fact that totally different images may represent the same object, we have made the first conceptual breakthrough in the understanding of inverse domains.

A further understanding of inverse domains is seen in common wall current. Wall current (60Hz, 120V) is graphically shown by the two diagrams in figure four. Figure 4-A shows voltage as a function of time. This is the standard sine wave which is familiar to most people. Figure 4-B shows voltage with respect to frequency. This shows a single spectral line at 60Hz. It does not require a strong technical or mathematical background to see that both of these diagrams represent the same phenomenon.

The reason that these two representations are referred to as inverse domains is equally simple. The time domain diagram (fig. 4-A) shows the period as being .01667 sec. The Frequency domain (fig. 4B) shows the frequency as being 60Hz. The relationship is simple:

We see that this is a simple reciprocal relationship. It is because of this simple relationship that they are called inverse domains.

Unfortunately, the real world conditions do not allow us to take a simple reciprocal and obtain our spectra. To derive spectra from complex sounds we are forced to perform what is called a Fourier transform.

The Fourier transform may be visualized as a magic "Black Box" which is able to convert time domain to frequency domain. There are numerous algorithms to accomplish, however the most common is an algorithm known as the "Fast Fourier Transform". This particular algorithm is usually abbreviated as FFT. The FFT is the most commonly used algorithm for small computer systems.

The Fourier transform was developed by Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier in the beginning of the 19th century. The life of Fourier would make an interesting book in its own right. He was successful at politics, sciences, and mathematics. It is also curious that the mathematical process that made him immortal was not developed for acoustics. It was instead developed during the course of his work on thermodynamics. However to us it is his "black box" that converts time domain to frequency domain which is important.

Although the Fourier transform may be visualized as "black box" there are still some considerations which should be observed. Primarily we need to keep in mind the effects of our sample.

The size of the sample is extremely important. This is because the amount of information which goes into the process is going to be the same as the information which comes out. The Fourier transform merely changes the form of the information. It does not generate nor destroy information. Therefore a larger sample will give us a higher frequency resolution. Let us say that we transform a sample which has 1024 points. Our output will have 512 frequency bands.

At this point the attentive reader will be saying "Hey, that is only half the information which went into the transform. Where did the other information go?" This would be a convenient place to zoom into the stratosphere with an esoteric discussion of imaginary numbers, but we will not do that. The simple fact is that the other half of the information is the phase relationship of the various frequency bands. Therefore the 1024 point sample was transformed into 512 frequency bands and the corresponding 512 phase relationships. However, this phase information is generally ignored.

There are situations when a characteristic of the sample produces a frequency which is not in the original. This is called an artifact. Aliasing is one example of an artifact.

There is another artifact which is particularly troublesome for the Fourier transform. This arises when the sample does not correspond to an even number of periods. We find that the Fourier transform presumes that it is dealing with an even number of periods and generates the frequency information accordingly. Therefore the presumed waveform from the sample in figure 5-A would be the waveform in figure 5-B

This artifact points to a fundamental weakness of the Fourier transform. The process presumes that there is a repeating pattern and that the sample conforms to an even number of periods.

Unfortunately, real world sounds tend to show an absence of such simple repeating patterns. This absence is usually derived from several mechanisms. The first is a random component in the sound (i.e., white noise). The another is the effect of the envelope (i.e., the attack and decay of the sound). And another deals with different envelopes for each component frequency. Although such fundamental inconsistencies exist between the presumptions of the Fourier transform and the real world, this does not weaken the value of the process. It merely means that we must be conscious of the artifacts and how they may influence our final results.

Usually these artifacts are of such a low amplitude that we do not need to worry about them. However, if one suspects that an area of interest may be an artifact, the easiest thing to do is to resample with a different sample size. If the particular component shows wide variation, it is probably an artifact. If it shows a certain consistency then it is probably a legitimate component.

We have seen that the Fourier transform is the major tool by which we are able to obtain the frequency information from a sample. We have also shown that there are certain considerations which should be observed if the transform is to be reliable. However we have not discussed one of the most important aspects of the process. That is the graphic representation of the information.

OUTPUT

The output of the spectrum analyzer is of prime importance. This is what is going to be interpreted by the instrument maker. An unintelligible output renders the whole system worthless.

Undoubtedly a simple numeric table would be the most fundamental computer output. After all, the Fourier transform is just a mathematical process which takes in number and spits out numbers. Unfortuanately, this is not an intuitive way to read the data. It is for this reason that a numeric output is not common for spectrum analyzers.

The simple X/Y plot is the most common form of output. This simply plots the data from the Fourier transform in standard Cartesian coordinates. The X axis is conventionally fixed as frequency and the Y axis is conventionally fixed as the amplitude. Furthermore there is a tendency to "fill" the diagram to make it visually more appealing. Figure 6 is a typical X/Y spectrum of a guitar with a black fill.

The simple X/Y has one disadvantage. It does not have the ability to show how the spectrum changes with respect to time. It is a characteristic of acoustic instruments that the spectrum is not fixed but changes over the course of time. If we take repetitive samples and plot them on the Z axis, then we can better illustrate the timbre of an instrument.

This is the principal behind the 3-D wireframe. In figure 7 we see a 3-D representation of the sound of a mridangam. There are several characteristics which may be seen that would not be apparent in a simple X/Y plot. For instance there is a moderate component of white noise (random vibration) in the initial sounding. This is indicated by the unusually broad peaks and the large degree of filling between them. The initial spectrum very quickly dies away and is replaced by a relatively stable 2nd, 3rd, and 4th harmonic. There is a peak in the second harmonic at an unusually long period after the drum was excited. All of these are characteristics which are clear when viewed as an 3-D wireframe but would not be so evident in a simple X/Y plot.

There is another way to represent the same information in a 2-D format. This is in the form of a "sonogram". This particular form of representation gained wide popularity in the pre-computer era because it lent itself well to analog techniques of spectrum analysis. This technique uses the X axis to display time and the Y axis to portray frequency. The amplitude is denoted by the darkness of the print. This method is still in use today in voice-print analysis, however for virtually all other applications it is on the decline.

All of the previous examples utilized a linear method of presenting the information. That is to say that each unit of time or voltage corresponded to a single unit of vertical or horizontal displacement. However, this one-to-one relationship is inconsistent with human perception.

Haven't you always wondered why when you walk into a dark room and turn on a light it gets bright but when you turn on two lights it doesn't get twice as bright. This is because human perception is not linear. Sometimes spectrum analyzers allow you to look at the spectrum in a non linear fashion somewhat analogous to the way we hear. This is referred to as a power spectrum while the normal linear graph is referred to as a normal spectrum. Figure 9 (A & B) shows both the normal spectrum and the power spectrum of steel drums.

It is apparent that that the power spectrum shows much more detail than the normal spectrum. Unfortunately it takes some practice to properly interpret the relative values of the component frequencies. The choice between displaying the power spectra or normal spectra is often a question of personal choice.

We may summarize the whole topic of output quite simply. Although the output from the Fourier transform must be numeric, virtually every package gives a graphic output. These may a standard X/Y plot, the older spectrogram, or the much more attractive 3-D wireframe.

CONCLUSION

Spectrum analyzers are not out of the reach of the common man. Software/ hardware packages are now in the range where almost anybody can afford one. However, the complexity of the subject still means that there has to be a certain attention to detail. If the nature of sampling and the quirks of the Fourier transform are known, it may be a useful tool for virtually any serious instrument builder, especially with an appropriate graphic output.

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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NORTH INDIAN MUSIC

by David Courtney, Ph.D.

There are many important events in the history of Indian music. These milestones show clearly the development of musical thought from early history to the present day.

The early history of Indian music may be explained by the Indo-European theory. According to this theory, there was a culture, or group of cultures who were so successful that they spread throughout Europe and parts of Asia. Although no one knows where they came from, present thought tends to place their origins somewhere in Eurasia, either north of the Black sea or north of the Caspian (Mallory 1989). Within this family there are several major groups. Indo-Aryan is a group which has special significance for India because this is the language and culture which generated the Vedas and other classical texts of ancient India. The classical music of India is said to have its roots in this culture.

The connection between Indo-European expansion and Indian music may be seen in mythology. Mythology refers to music being brought to the people of India from a place of celestial beings. This mythical land (Gandharva Desh) is usually equated with heaven. However, some are of the opinion that this mythical land could actually be Kandahar in what is the modern Afghanistan. Therefore, the myths of music being given to the world by the celestial beings (gandharva) may actually represent a cultural connection with this ancient Indo-Aryan homeland.

Further evidence may be seen in musical structure. In the first few centuries B.C., Indian music was based upon seven modes (scales). It is probably no coincidence that Greek music was also based upon seven modes. Furthermore, the Indian scales follow the same process of modulation (murchana) that was found in ancient Greek music. Since Greece is also Indo-European, this is another piece of evidence for the Indo-European connection.

The link to Sanskrit is another strong indication of Indo-European roots. Many of the earliest texts were written in Sanskrit. It is also generally believed that classical music is derived from the Samaveda. However it should be stressed that this belief is hard to justify because intermediate forms have never been found.

In the final analysis, the roots of classical music being Indo-European / Indo-Aryan are a reflection of modern paradigms concerning ancient Indian history. Although supporting evidence may be slim, conflicting evidence is conspicuous by its absence. Until we are faced with significant conflicting evidence we should accept the Indo-European /Indo-Aryan theory.

The nature of music in prehistoric India may be obscure but the picture begins to become clear in the first few centuries B.C.. Bharata's Natya-Shastra (circa 200 B.C.), provides a detailed account of stagecraft in that period. Here we find mention of seven shuddha jati (pure modes) and eleven mixed jatis (modal forms not produced by simple modulation). There is also a very detailed discussion of the musical instruments.

The first millennium provides us with several texts which show the evolution of Indian music. The Brihaddeshi written by Matanga (circa 700 A.D.) is very important. It is in this work that we first find the word "rag" mentioned. However, there is some doubt whether the concept was the same as it is today. Another important text is the "Sangeet Ratnakar" by Sharangdev. This work, written around the thirteenth century, gives extensive commentaries about numerous musical styles that existed at that time.

Perhaps one of the most significant milestones in the development of Indian music was the life of Amir Khusru (Bhatkhande 1934)(born circa 1253, died 1325). There is a tendency among Indians to attribute the development of almost everything to him. He is erroneously referred to as the inventor of the sitar and tabla and numerous musical forms which did not develop until many centuries after his death. Although the extent of his contribution to Indian music is more legendary than factual, he nevertheless symbolizes a crucial turning point in the development of Indian music. Amir Khusru is an icon representing a growing Persian influence on the music. This influence was felt to a greater extent in the North than in the South. The consequence of this differing degree of influence ultimately resulted in the bifurcation of Indian music into two distinct systems; the Hindustani sangeet of the North and the Carnatic sangeet of the South.

Tansen

The musical career of Tansen is another landmark in the development of Indian Music (Mital 1960). He is significant because he symbolizes the maturing of the north Indian system as a distinct entity from south Indian music.

The eighteenth century marks the birth of many of the musical forms that we think of today. Dadra, kheyal, thumri and a host of other forms are traceable to this period. Sadarang, and Adarang are two men who have made particular contributions in this matter.

The early part of the 20th century brings the most recent revolution in north Indian music. This is provide by two people: V. N. Bhatkhande and V. D. Paluskar. These two men revolutionized the concept of Indian music. Paluskar is responsible for the introduction of the first music colleges while Bhatkhande is responsible for the introduction of an organized system which reflects current performance practice. Both men are also responsible for the development and popularization of a modern musical notation.

In the preceding section we have given a fair description of the Indian concept of Sangeet. This threefold artform of vocal music, instrumental music and dance, provides the foundation for the classical arts in India. As in any art, the ultimate goal is the emotional quality. The primary musical vehicle for the conveyance of this emotion is rag.

Interview with David Courtney

David Courtney grew up in Houston, TX in an all American, middle class and totally non-musical family. Indian music first sparked David's interest during his high school days. After all, those were the 60s, the time when Ravi Shanker introduced Indian music to the West and a new cultural revolution was sweeping through the world. At the age of 20, David joined the Ali Akbar College of Music in San Rafael, California in 1973 and learned Tabla and Pakhawaj under Ustad Zakir Hussein. Following this, he went to Hyderabad, India in 1976 to further his tabla learning. He learned to read and write Hindi and also a lot of local Hyderabadi slang! While in Hyderabad he studied tabla under the late Ustad Shaik Dawood Khan and married Chandrakantha, who is an accomplished North Indian classical vocal singer.

David and Chandra returned to Houston in 1984 and have since been spreading their knowledge of Indian classical music to students all over the United States. During 1988 David enrolled as an external student at the Greenwich University (International Institute for Advanced Studies) located in Hawaii where he proposed a thesis for Ph.D. on "Computers and Indian Music". He utilized the facilities at Rice University in Houston, TX to complete his Ph.D. in 1990, under the mentorship of Dr. Maricia Herndon.

David and Chandra live in a small home (actually his parents guest-house) in Houston along with their 14 year old son Shamsundar Dawood and 13 year old daughter Veena Krupaand various musical instruments, computers and David's self-made recording studio. His elderly parents Cecil and Jo Ann Courtney live in an adjoining main house.

David is a master in the art of playing tabla and teaching. His students range from as young as six to as old as sixty. I have observed him for several years and concluded that he is a gifted and multi-talented man. He is equally well versed in playing the Dholak and Pakhawaj and I was moved by his piano playing. David has the ability to produce the most melodious rhythmic music on the tabla even while playing a straight theka! I am amazed at his knowledge in the repair of tabla, harmonium. and stringed instruments. I am always flabbergasted by his intellectual knowledge about computers, electronics and science in general. It is always a very humbling experience to enter into discussion with him regarding Indian classical music, some scientific subject, and on odd occasions even medical topics. I often wonder where he finds the time to acquire such a vast spectrum of knowledge while expending enormous amount of time practicing tabla, tinkering with computers, and feeding his addiction of watching late night Sci-fi movies on the TV.

T. A. Reddy M.D.
Midland, TX

GUS BUZBEE - BIOGRAPHY

A Personal Word from Gus Buzbee
I was born September 20, 1952 in Barstow California and grew up in Houston, Texas where the early influences of AM radio's rock, R & B, and country music made a lasting impression. This bred a familiarity with the hits of the day.

While watching the Beatles' first Ed Sullivan show, I had [ what I now call ] a very heavy spiritual experience. In a single moment I understood what and how they were playing the music.... the rhythm, the harmony, and how the cued each other as the song's arrangement was being played. What a mind blowing experience for a child! Now all I had to do was pick up an instrument and play! Yea, right.

The craft and the skill were to be a long time in the making, but the path proved to be the best teacher of all. I started by playing drums in middle school, and high school. At the age of 16 I started playing in bars and nightclubs with a former member of the Buckinghams [Kind of a Drag, Mercy, Mercy, Mercy] by the name of Russell Noah AKA "Fang" with whom I did my first recording session with. By the time I was out of high school I had switched to guitar and was playing the tunes of Crosby Stills Nash and Young , Jimi Hendrix and Led Zeppelin, the Who and of course the Beatles.

Around the end of high school I started writing my own material that led to my first 45 record "Another Chance" recorded with some high school friends. The record didn't do much but sound good and it gave me the studio bug to learn all I could about the process of multitrack recording.

In the spring of 1973 I was driving home late one night and tuned to a station that was playing the most incredible guitarist I had ever heard. His speed and melodic concepts completely took my breath away. It was John McLaughlin's Mahavishnu Orchestra. I was aware of India's music from listening to the Beatles and to George Harrison's collaboration with Ravi Shankar and I was aware of the spiritual insights of meditation. With this fusion of ideas my musical sights were set upon a path that still moves me to this day. It has led me to the people whom are part of this same flow.

About 1975, I was playing in a very LOUD rock band called "White Rock" which was good experience for the electric guitar. I really got a handle on what volume is all about on stage [ I'm still looking for an amp with a volume knob that goes to "11"]

I opened my first four-track studio in 1976 called Wooden Studios. All of the material recorded there led me to the next step... that was to try to get a record deal. This was to prove an interesting education in the difference between art and money. And as far as I can see today, the business end is still the same...Ha Ha.

In 1977 John McLaughlin's Shakti showed me that it was possible to fuse acoustic rock guitar with traditional raga concepts. Once again the music of India called me.

In May 1977, I married Kelley Buzbee to whom I am still married. With this stability, I was able to work my way into the local agencies that did road show and concerts. I was in a position to rent my PA and services as an engineer. I learned very quickly and developed an 'ear' for demanding live shows with such artists as The Temptations, Steve Allen, Trini Lopez, ect. This training was a tremendous asset once I set up my next recording studio in 1980. This time, Wooden Studios boasted a larger room and 16 tracks.

Between 1980 and 1985, I recorded hundreds of Houston area musicians. Some national acts of note: USDRI, Byther Smith, Big Roger Collins, and Fever Tree's Micheal Knust. I recorded my own projects whenever I could book myself in the studio! In May 1981 our daughter, Mia Buzbee was born and when she was three days old I taped her crying. I included it on the opening track of "Pioneer."

"Pioneer" was an extremely ambitious undertaking and its creation resulted in my first video of "Under the Impression". In 1983 rock videos were not as common as they are now, so it was easy to get a little well-placed airplay across the USA. This exposure on public and college stations led to modest sales of "Pioneer."

In 1985 the economy pulled the plug on Houston and sunk the studio business. With the economy in the pits and no studio, I began playing solo with my acoustic 12 string and I gained a reputation that resulted in my being voted " Best Acoustic Guitarist" by the Houston Music Reader's Poll sponsored by the Pubic News.

Over the next few years this trend continued with at least three other bands and videos. These projects gained exposure all across the USA via access TV programming. To this day I still receive cards and letters from someone who has seen those videos that are still in rotation somewhere... Go figure, Huh.

In 1994, I started on a different kind of journey, one with the intention of finding out who I was, and where does the creative flow come from, and how can it be accessed? All of the information came to me like a magnet.

I was able to study with a chant master from Colorado as well as the Tibetan Monks from the Deprung Loseling Monastery. I was exposed to their incredible vocal chanting which can produce 3-4 notes at one time, with one voice. This exposure showed me how harmonics of the body and of the voice are truly the wellspring of the soul. This realization completely changed every concept I ever had about music. Everything, and I mean EVERYTHING in my life changed.

The last three years have been spent applying spiritual principals to my music. I believe that it has made it possible for me to communicate to a larger audience than ever before. If you are reading this you are now part of that flow. It is my hope that through my music and divine inspiration that your consciousness is lifted so that you may see the meaning of within. Best wishes: Gus Buzbee - Summer of '98

Great Going Qwestda - yet to read all - but please keep posting please! 👏 👏 👏

Originally posted by: soulsoup

Great Going Qwestda - yet to read all - but please keep posting please! 👏 👏 👏

Thanks for find time yes I will do some more posting on him.

GHAZAL (GAZAL) - URDU POETIC SONGS

by David Courtney, Ph.D.

Introduction

The ghazal is a common form in Indian and Pakistan. Strictly speaking, it is not a musical form at all but a poetic recitation. However, today it is commonly conceived of as an Urdu song whose prime importance is given to the lyrics.

History of the Ghazal

It is said that we must turn to Arabia to find the origins of the ghazal. The word ghazal is an Arabic word that literally means a "discourse" or more correctly a "talk to women". There was an Arabic form of poetry called qasida which came to Iran in about the 10th century. It dealt with the themes of the greatness of kings.

The qasida was at times unmanageably long. It was often 100 couplets or more. Therefore, a portion of the qasida, known as the tashib was detached and this became the ghazal. The ghazal soon became the most popular form of poetry in Iran.

Ghazal's introduction into India from the 12th century, was part of an ongoing revolution in North Indian society. India considered herself to be culturally inferior to greater Persia. Thus Persian culture became a great inspiration for India. The ghazal, along with many other cultural desiderata, were imported into India from the 12th to the 18th centuries. These forms were given a local colour by many Indian artists such as Amir Khusru, and continued to enjoy widespread popularity among Indian Muslims for many centuries.

Although the ghazal was introduced first in the north, the south is responsible for its Urdu character. The North Indian principalities were very much oriented toward Persian, but it was in the south that Urdu was beginning to be used for literary purposes. It was in the courts of Golkonda, and Bijapur that this revolution occurred. Such leaders as, Nusrati, Wajhi, Hashmi, Mohammad Quli Qutab Shah, and Wali are notable in their patronage and contributions. Northern India began to embrace Urdu as a poetic language only in about the 19th century.

The process of converting this poetic form into a musical form was a slow one. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the ghazal became associated the courtesan. The courtesans, known as tawaif, were considered the mavens of art, literature, dance, music, etiquette, and in short, all of the high culture. They were widely acclaimed for their musical abilities and did not hesitate to demonstrate these abilities when they performed the ghazal.

The decline in the feudal society at the end of the 19th and early 20th century brought with it a decline in the tawaif tradition. This change in culture also saw a change in the performance of ghazal. It continued to build upon its musical component, and began to be heard more and more in the concert hall.

The job of converting ghazal to a musical form was finished in the 20th century. The development of the recording and film industries created a mass media that was well suited to the musical ghazal. They also created an environment where it was convenient to treat the ghazal as though it were a mere git. All of this had tremendous economic advantages for performers and producers alike. Unfortunately, it also created economic pressures to lower the standards for the lyrical content.

Structure of the Ghazal

The poetic structure of the ghazal is precise. It is based upon a series of couplets which are woven together by a precise rhyming structure. The overall form uses an introductory couplet, the body of couplets, and then an concluding couplet. We will look at these in greater detail.

The first couplet is always the most important, this is known as the matla. The matla is important because it establishes the overall form and mood of the entire ghazal. Occasionally there are two matlas, in which case the second one is referred to as the matla-e-sani.

Each subsequent couplet is linked to the matla in a well defined fashion. The second verse of each couplet must rhyme with this. Therefore, if the rhyming structure of the matla is AA, then the subsequent couplets have the form BA, CA, DA, etc.

There is a convention in the ghazal known as the radif. This is a characteristic way that a portion of the first line (usually just two or three words) is maintained throughout the ghazal. However, it is not always executed consistently. For instance if there is no radif, the form is said to be ghair-muraddaf, this form is very rare. If the exact same words are used in the radif, then it is said to be ham-radif.

The last couplet of the ghazal is very important, this is called the maqta. It usually contains the pen name (takhallus) of the poet. The maqta is usually a personal statement which may be very different in tone from the rest of the ghazal. Today it is becoming more common to leave off the maqta.

There are a few common themes in the ghazal. Typically they revolve around unrequited love, madness, mystical ruminations, and even social commentaries ridiculing religious orthodoxy. Certainly the most common is unrequited love. However, within each ghazal the theme of each couplet need not be consistent. Each couplet may be thought of as a thematic vignette that need not relate to it adjacent couplets.

Although the themes of each couplet in a ghazal are usually distinct, there are some occasions where there is consistency. The Nazm is an example of a style that exhibits remarkable consistency in its thematic approach. A more common type of thematic connection is known as qita. Still, the norm is for each couplet to stand alone thematically.

Musical Form

The musical form of the ghazal is variable. The older more traditional ghazals were very similar to other Hindustani light classical forms such as the dadra or, thumri. One often finds forms that are similar to qawwali. They are typically in a variety of light classical rags. However today, the ghazal usually has a form which is not too dissimilar to many film songs. Such forms are usually decried by the purists because they usually display a bas***disation of the lyrics and a careless disregard of the forms.

The rhythmic forms (tal) of the modern ghazal are invariably of the lighter forms. One typically finds rupak (7 beats), dadra (6 beats) and kaherava 8 beats being used to the near exclusion of everything else.

Conclusion

The story of the ghazal is an interesting one. It is a story that begins in Arabia and continues over to Persia and on to India. It involves an evolution from a long involved Persian poetic discourse into modern Urdu poetry. It shows how a form of poetry may be converted into a form of song. This is an extreme evolution, but one which occupies an important position in Indian music.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS USED IN GHAZAL

Harmonium Santur Sarangi Sitar Tabla
• Rabab

Here is great thread open by Abhi ji on David Courtney, Ph.D. what a great posting he did.

Traditional Musical Forms - A Review

adwarakanath IF-Rockerz Banned Joined: 29 December 2005 Location: India Posts: 7307

Posted: 21 February 2006 at 9:42pm | IP Logged Hello Everyone😊 I am starting this topic to compile information on our musical forms, and take a general idea of musical tastes. I've enabled mutiple polling for obvious reasons. Please don't misuse it. I am starting by posting an article on Qawwalis. Please contribute generously. I appeal to everyone to take part in the discussion. Although this is a SRGMP forum, SRGMP itself is the origin of all music. So please, all those who come here just for updates, or supporting contestants...etc, please take part. LEST RACK 👍🏼 ---------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------ -- QAWWALI Islamic Devotional Music by David Courtney, Ph.D.

Thanks Qwest...still reading but great info 👏