MUSIC OF INDIA

Music of India

INDIAN FOLK MUSIC

by David Courtney, Ph.D.

India has a very rich tradition of folk music. The extreme cultural diversity creates endless varieties of folk styles. Each region has its own particular style.

There is a tendency to lump folk music along with tribal music. There is actually a difference. Where folk music is a mere rustic reflection of the larger Indian society, tribal music often represents cultures that are very different. Some of these tribal cultures are throwbacks to cultural conditions as they were thousands of years ago.

Tribal and folk music is not taught in the same way that Indian classical music is taught. There is no formal period of apprenticeship where the student is able to devote their entire life to learning the music, the economics of rural life does not permit this sort of thing. The musical practitioners must still attend to their normal duties of hunting, agriculture or whatever their chosen profession is.

Music in the villages is learned almost by osmosis. From childhood the music is heard and imbibed along with ones mother's milk. There are numerous public activities that allow the villagers to practice and hone their skills. These are the normal functions which syncronize village life with the universe.

The music is an indispensable component of functions such as weddings, engagements, and births. There is a plethora of songs for such occasions. There are also many songs associated with planting and harvesting. In these activities the villagers routinely sing of their hopes, fears and aspirations.

Folk music is also used for educational purposes. For instance sex education has traditionally been taught in Andhra Pradesh by song. There is a function when a girl has her first menses. In this function the elderly women in the community gather at the house (men are definitely excluded), the girl is given her first woni and langa (half sari which is worn by unmarried girls), rich food and other gifts. During this function the women sing songs that are extremely bawdy. To an outsider this would seem uncharacteristic of obviously respectable community members. However the function of such songs is to provide the girl's first instructions on her emerging womanhood and what her future marital duties will be.

Musical instruments are often different from those found in classical music. Although instruments like the tabla may sometimes be found it is more likely that cruder drums such as daf, dholak, or nal will be used. The sitar and sarod which are so common in the classical genre are absent in the folk music. One often finds instruments such as the ektar, dotar, saringda, rabab, and santur. Quite often they will not even be called these names, but may be named according to their local dialect. There are also instruments which are used only in particular folk styles in particular regions. These instruments are innumerable.

The instruments that folk musicians use are generally not as refined as the classical musicians use. The instruments of classical music are crafted by artisans whose only job is the fabrication of musical instruments. In contrast the folk instruments are commonly crafted by the musicians themselves.

It is very common to find folk instruments that have been fabricated of commonly available materials. Skin, peritoneum, bamboo, coconut shells, and pots are but a few commonly available materials used to make musical instruments

What is Hindustani classical music?

The classical music of North India is called Hindustani Classical Music.

How is Indian classical music different from Western classical music? What are their similarities?

Melody and rhythm are the common grounds for music, be it Western or Indian. Indian music is essentially monophonic (single melody format or homophonic) while Western music can be polyphonic (multiple notes played or sung in harmonised unison), monophonic or a combination of both.

Western classical music is based upon the equal tempered scale, and rests upon melody, harmony and counterpart while Swara and Tala are the two basic components of Indian classical music.

Swaras are the twelve notes and the intervening semitones , while a Tala is a cycle of beats, starting with a stress point called the Sam and ending with a release point called the Khali. It is this (sam & khali) that brings life to a Tala.






What is meant by 'Hindustani' and 'Carnatic' music?

Indian classical music has two distinct styles-Hindustani classical music and Carnatic music. Hindustani music is prevalent all over India except in the Southern States, where Carnatic music is practiced.

What is the origin of these two styles of music and which is older?

No definite answer can be given about the antiquity of either of these styles of music. The tradition of Indian music practiced and developed is nearly three thousand years old. Indigenous musical styles and schools evolved and developed in different regions of the country by blending purely ritualistic music and folk music. The basic elements remain the same. The semantic divide between the two styles started from the time of the 'Sangeetaratnakara' of Sharangadeva (1210-1247 AD). This was later enhanced by the Muslim influence and this musical bifurcation was described for the first time as Hindustani and Carnatic music by Haripaladeva in his text the 'Sangeetsudhakara' (1309-1312 AD).

What are the similarities and differences between 'Hindustani' and 'Carnatic' music?

Both the styles are monophonic, follow a melodic line and employ a drone (tanpura) with the help of one or two notes against the melody. Both the styles use definite scales to define a raga but the Carnatic Style employs Shrutis or semitones to create a Raga and thus have many more Ragas than the Hindustani style. Carnatic ragas differ from Hindustani ragas. The names of ragas are also different. However, there are some ragas which have the same scale as Hindustani ragas but have different names; such as Hindolam and Malkauns, Shankarabharanam and Bilawal. There is a third category of ragas like Hamsadhwani, Charukeshi, Kalavati etc. which are essentially Carnatic Ragas. They share the same name, the same scale (same set of notes) but can be rendered in the two distinctively different Carnatic and Hindustani styles. Unlike Hindustani music, Carnatic music does not adhere to Time or Samay concepts and instead of Thaats, Carnatic music follows the Melakarta concept.

What is a raga?

Each Raga has its own scale consisting of minimum five and maximum seven notes (swaras). A raga has specific ascending (Aaroh) and descending (Avaroh) movements, specific dominating notes (vadi) and specific notes complementing the Vadi (Samvadi) notes. The characteristic phrases of a raga (Pakad) establish its identity and mood.

How many ragas are there?
Originally, there were six Ragas and thirty-six Raginis (melodies with softer emotions). Hundreds of Ragas were created with the help of these Ragas and Raginis, many of which have become obsolete. In recent times, musicians have composed many more ragas. There are today, approximately, 120-150 ragas in use.

Are these ragas used in classical music only?

Ragas are used in semi-classical and light music as well.

What is a Thaat?

9. Thaat is a system by which different sets of complete scale of seven notes, in ascending order, are formulated to categorize the maximum number of ragas under it. Thaat or Mela is known as the Parental scale. There are ten Thaats under which most of the Hindustani ragas can be catagorised. These Thaats have the names of ragas and they are Bilawal, Khamaj, Poorvi, Kafi, Bhairavi, Kalyan, Bhairav, Marwa, Asavari and Todi.

How significant is 'Thaat' in classical music? Is it relevant in other types of music too?

For a performer, Thaats have little significance but for a student of music, the system comes as a great help to understand the classification of ragas. Thaat does not have relevance in other types of music.

What is a 'Tanpura'? How does it help the singers?

Tanpura or Tambura is a drone instrument, usually consisting of four or six strings tuned to Pa or Ma or Ni, Sa, Sa, Sa (Sol or Fa or Ti, Doh, Doh, Doh). The two strings in the centre are Sa of middle octave. The Pa or Ma or Ni and the last Sa are of the lower octave. The droning of the Tanpura helps singers to get set on the scale and it resonates to create a musical atmosphere.

What are the other instruments for vocal support? What is their origin? Why has the Harmonium become so popular in comparison with other instruments?

Sarangi, Violin and Harmonium. The Sarangi originated from a folk instrument of Rajasthan, while the origin of the Violin and the Harmonium is from the West. The Harmonium is easy to master and therefore became very popular, though it is not worthy of pure Indian classical music. Its equal tempered notes, like the piano, cannot capture the embellishments (Shruti, Meend, Gamak etc.). It came into vogue not very long ago.

What are the prominent percussion instruments used for accompaniment?

Tabla is the most prominent percussion instrument, apart from the 'Pakhawaj'_ an old, traditional instrument played to accompany Dhrupad singers. All other forms of Hindustani classical music use tabla, which came into being with the evolution of Hindustani classical music. The Tabla is believed to have been devised by Hazrat Amir Khusro.

Do vocalists and accompanists rehearse together for a long period of time like their counterparts in the West?

No. Accompanists of the performers of Indian classical music do not necessarily rehearse together. Indian music is essentially, solo music. The training of a tabla player is not complete till he masters the art of accompaniment or stagecraft. He practices with many musicians to develop his skills as an accompanist just as the main performer does with different tabla players. In some cases, a musician may continue to practice with an accompanist of his choice for a long time.

For a vocal or instrumental performance, other accompanying artistes are seen with the main performer. How is it then a solo music?

As the vocalist performs and music flows, the accompanists on the tabla and harmonium provide support by keeping the beats and following the mood of the performer. It is therefore, essentially, solo music.

What is a Khayal? How many such forms are there?

Khayal is a form of rendering a raga. The essential component of a khayal is a composition (Bandish) and the expansion of the text of the composition within the framework of the raga. The nuances and sub forms employed to improvise and embellish the rendition vary from singer to singer. There are two forms of Khayal. Bada-Khayal in slow tempo and Chhota-Khayal in medium to fast tempo.

What is a Dhrupad? What are the differences between Dhrupad and Khayal?

Dhruvapada or Dhrupad is another form of rendering a raga. It has a specific composition, consisting of four parts and is sung in different styles. The percussion accompaniment is the Mridang or Pakhawaj, a one-piece drum, as opposed to the two-piece drum, the tabla in khayal. The main difference between these two musical forms is that the Dhrupad is rigidly bound by the composition and the tala, within which all improvisation has to be made. The Khayal, on the other hand, has the freedom to free itself from the rhythmic beat and then return to the beginning of each time cycle (tala). Also, the two essential idioms used in Khayal, which are absent in Dhrupad, are the Sargam and Taan. Sargam is the singing of the notes (sa, re, ga,..), per se, instead of words while Taan is the sequential movement through the different notes using the vowel "Aa".

What is a Thumri?

The Thumri is yet another form of rendering ragas. However , this very popular, light classical form of Hindustani music, is limited to specific ragas whose key emotion is lyricism and eroticism, e.g. Bhairavi, Gara, Pilu. Effective word-play usually characterizes a Thumri. Chiefly associated with folk songs of UP and Punjab, the Thumri is composed in dialects of Hindi.

Sometimes the words of a Khayal or Thumri are difficult to follow. Why is it so?

Sometimes the words are not intelligible because they are sung in a stylized manner and do not always follow the necessary scansion and get elongated with the notes.


1. Very often some artistes utter a small portion of the text three times and arrive at a stressed beat. What is it called and what is its significance?
   
   Very often musicians repeat a particular phrase thrice and arrive on the first beat of the rhythm known as 'Sam'. This division of any Tala, or rhythm cycle, into three equal parts to create variation and musical thrill is known as 'Tihaayi'. Artistically phrased tihaayi enhances the beauty of a performance.
   
   

Indian Folk Music

India folk music owes its origins to the villages of India. This musical form represents the folklore and lives of the villagers. Indian folk music is classified into its varied types depending on the region of their origination. Here is a list of some of the popular ones that seem to have found global music fans:

Bhangra: This folk music hails from the state of Punjab. It is considered the music of celebration with a dance form of the same name. Another musical form that has come from the same region is known as Gidha.

Lavani: This belongs to the state of Maharashtra. This variation of folk music is commonly sung by women. Another music type is composed by the fisher folk of the Konkan coastline. This is known as Kohli music.

Dandiya: This is a popular folk music that originates from the state of Gujarat. This is a celebratory music form and people dance to these tunes during the festival of Navratri, as well as other celebratory occasions and festivals. Another type of music that comes from this state is that of Gharba.

Rajasthani: The state of Rajasthan has global acclaim because of it rich and colorful heritage. In fact most foreigners visiting India, put this state on to their tourist package. The entire state is made up of numerous clans and castes and sub-castes, and each one has created its own peculiar folk music. These include langas, sapera, bhopa, jogi and manganiyar.

Bauls: It is the folk music of Bengal that was created by musicians who called themselves bauls. The term bauls has its roots in the Sanskrit word batul, which means 'divinely inspired insanity'.

Another form of folk music is the Indian tribal music that originated from the inhabitants of the hilly regions of India. These are still composed amongst the tribals of northeast India and the southern states.

Generally the folk and tribal music was composed and performed in a manner to give a social message or to celebrate a particular occasion such as a festival. It gave the local inhabitants to gather together and enjoy a piece of entertainment.

Folk Dances & Music of Kerala

Kathakali
Kerala owes its transnational fame to this nearly 300 years old classical dance form which combines facets of ballet, opera, masque and the pantomime. It is said to have evolved from other performing arts like Kootiyattam, Krishnanattam and Kalarippayattu. Kathakali explicates ideas and stories from the Indian epics and Puranas.

Chavittunatakom
A Christian art form of Kerala. Evolved at the turn of the 16th Century AD during the Portuguese colonization and bears definite traces of the European Christian Miracle Play. In this musical drama, the actors wear Greco-Roman costumes and even the stage props bear several foreign influences.

Oppana
A dance form essential to the wedding entertainment and festivities of the Malabar Muslims. Maidens and young female relatives sing and dance around the bride, clapping their hands.The songs of Mappilappattu, are first sung by the leader and are repeated by the chorus.

Krishnanattom
A spectacle for both the scholar and the simple rustic. The visual effect is enhanced by varied and colourful facial make-up with larger-than-life-masks, made of light wood and cloth padding, for certain characters. The characters who do not wear masks have specific facial colours applied within the frame of a white chutti.

Mohiniyattom
The sinuous dance of the enchantress, this is a distinctive classical dance form of Kerala. Slow, graceful, swaying movements of the body and limbs and highly emotive eye and hand gestures are unique to this dance form. The simple, elegant gold-filigreed dress, in pure white or ivory, is akin to the traditional attire of the women of Kerala.





Kakkarissi natakom
Kakkarissi natakom is a satirical dance-drama based on the puranic legends of Lord Siva and his consort Parvati when they assumed human forms as Kakkalan and Kakkathi - a nomadic tribe of fortune tellers. The legend only serves as a skeletal framework for the play, which often turns into a subtle critique of contemporary society.

Thiruvathirakali
Thiruvathirakali is a dance performed by women, in order to attain everlasting marital bliss, on Thiruvathira day in the Malayalam month of Dhanu (December- January). The dance is a celebration of marital fidelity and the female energy, for this is what brought Kamadeva (the god of love) back to life after he was reduced to ashes by the ire of Lord Siva.

Kolkkali
A folk art mainly of the agrarian classes, Kolkkali is a highly rhythmic dhey never miss a beat. In Malabar, Kolkkali is more popular among Muslim men.

Thullal
Thullal is a solo performance combining the dance and recitation of stories in verse. Staged during temple festivals, the performer explicates the verses through expressive gestures. The themes are based on mythology. This satiric art form was introduced in the18th century by the renowned poet Kunchan Nambiar .

Kootiyattom
Kootiyattam literally means "acting together". This is the earliest classical dramatic art form of Kerala. Based on Sage Bharatha's 'Natyasasthra' who lived in the second century, Kootiyattam evolved in the 9th century AD. Kootiyattam is enacted inside the temple theatre, there are two or more characters onstage at the same time, with the Chakkiars providing the male cast and the Nangiars playing the female roles. The Nangiars beat the cymbals and recite verses in Sanskrit, while in the background Nambiars play the Mizhavu, a large copper drum.

Duffmuttu
Duffmuttu is also known as Aravanamuttu. It is a group performance popular among the Muslims of Malabar. Duffmuttu is staged as a social event during festivals and nuptial ceremonies.

BHAJAN - THE HINDU DEVOTIONAL SONG

by David Courtney, Ph.D.

The bhajan has a special place in India. Most bhajans were written between the 14th through 17th centuries. They are simple songs sung in the praise of God. Complex spiritual truths are portrayed in the simple language of the farmers, merchants and other common people of the time.

Bhajan is an important part of a Hindu revivalist movement which swept through India during the Mogul period; this movement was known as the Bhakti movement. The crux of this movement was simple; spiritual salvation was attainable to anyone who had a pure and selfless love of God. This salvation was not predicated upon formalised yagnas, pujas, knowledge of Sanskrit, or any of the characteristics of the older forms of Hinduism. This was a spiritual empowerment of the masses.

Bhajan is difficult to describe musically because it is not defined by any musical characteristics; it is defined by a sense of devotion (bhakti). Bhajans cover a broad spectrum of musical styles from the simple musical chant (dhun) to highly developed versions comparable to thumri.

The poetic content of the bhajan also covers a broad spectrum. The more traditional ones by great saint musicians such as Mira, Surdas, or Kabir are considered to be of the highest literary quality. Many modern ones, although more easily understood by the masses, usually have a literary value no greater than a typical film song (a popular form of music generated for the masses). The lowest poetic form is the dhun, which is actually nothing more than a musical version of a chant.

The structure of bhajan is very conventional. It contains a single sthai and numerous antara. The last antara has special significance because it contains the nom de plume of the author

DADRA

SEMICLASSICAL INDIAN SONG

by David Courtney, Ph.D.

Dadra is a light classical style which is very similar to thumri. Although it resembles thumri it is much looser and allows more freedom for the artist. The tals used are dadra of 6 beats, kaherava of 8 beats, or any other light tal. It is commonly performed in light rags such as mand, pilu or pahadi

DHAMMAR

OLD FORM OF SINGING

by David Courtney, Ph.D.

Dhammar is a very old style of singing. The name is also applied to instrumental renditions of the same. It has many similarities to dhrupad. The major difference is that it is slightly more romantic. Themes of dhammar typically revolve around Krishna and the Holi festival. In fact the dhammar is often called "hori" (holi). It is typically performed in dhammar tal of 14 beats. Dhammar, like its cousin the dhrupad, is rarely heard today

DHRUPAD

ANCIENT NORTH INDIAN CLASSICAL VOCAL

by David Courtney, Ph.D.

Dhrupad is perhaps the oldest style of classical singing in north Indian music today. The heyday of this style was in the time of Tansen. It is a very heavy, masculine style performed to the accompaniment of the pakhawaj (an ancient mridang). It is known for its austere quality and strict adherence to the tal. The moods of dhrupad may vary, but themes revolving around the victories of great kings and mythological stories are common. Devotional themes are also very common.

The dhrupad usually adheres to a four-part structure of sthai, antara, abhog, and sanchari. It is usually set to chautal of 12 beats, tivra of 7 beats, or sulfak of 10 beats. Occasionally one hears matt of 9 beats, or farodast of 14 beats. Its formal structure makes it a very difficult style to master. Unfortunately, this rigidity has also made it very difficult for the average person to appreciate. Today this style is almost extinct.

Dhrupad is also an instrumental form. However as an instrumental form, it is a mere imitation of the vocal dhrupad

FILMI SANGEET - THE INDIAN FILM SONG

by David Courtney, Ph.D.

Scene from early film (circa 1965)

Filmi sangeet is the music from the Indian film industry. It is a commercial genre comparable to the Western "Top 40". The term "Film Song" is today somewhat of a misnomer because there are many songs of this genre that have never been in any film.

There may be questions concerning the artistic quality of the film song but there is no questioning its popular appeal. It is heard from every loudspeaker in India for every function imaginable. Its biggest appeal is to the youth and lower classes.

HISTORY OF THE INDIAN FILM SONG

The birth of the Indian film song may be traced to the advent of India's first sound motion picture in 1931. This film was entitled "Alam Ara" and heralded in a new era in Indian motion pictures. At the same time, it sewed the seeds for a new musical genre.

In the 30's three major film centres developed. These were based in Bombay (AKA Mumbai), Calcutta, and Madras (AKA Chenai). Of theses centres, Bombay was known for the making of films geared for national distribution, while Madras, and Calcutta were known for their regional films.

The early years of this industry were very fruitful. Between 1931 and 1940 India produced 931 Hindi feature films with an average of 10 songs per films. The numbers for the regional films from Madras and Calcutta, were much lower, but the orientation towards music was similar.

This period is notable for a number of major artists. Music directors such as Pankaj Mullick, Keshavrao Bhole, and Anil Biswas are a few who spring to mind. It is interesting to note that this early period did not favor "playback" singers. Many of the original actors and actresses sang their own songs. Many times, actors were chosen specifically for their singing abilities, Bal Gandharva, and Baburao Pendharkar are two examples.

In the 1940's and 1950's, the business began to shift away from the big motion picture studios to the independent producers. Although this opened the doors to many new musicians and music directors, the influence on whole was not positive. The distribution networks began to rely heavily on the "formulas" (i.e., "X" number of big name actors, "Y" numbers of songs, and "Z" number of dances, etc.). These formula films are known in Hindi as "masaala films". These formulas were determined by commercial and not artistic considerations. From that time on formula music became the norm. The number and variety of the film songs was solidly locked into place. The artistic results of making music by formula rather than inspiration is obvious.

This period is also significant for the introduction of the "playback" singer. Whereas the earlier artists acted and sang, the movies of this period introduced the custom of having actors who did not sing their own songs but instead had other singers do this for them. This is the playback singer.

Many notable playback singers came to prominence during this period. The most notable are, Lata Mangeshkar, Hemant Kumar, Mohammed Rafi, Geeta Dutt, and Asha Bhosle. Major music directors are Naushad, C. Ramchandra, S. D. Burman, Shankar - Jaikishan, and Madan Mohan.

The 60's and 70's represented a time of relative stability. It is true that there was an ever increasing standard of recording quality as technical advances were made. It is also true that a few artists would come and go. But for the most part, the playback singers such as Lata, Hemant, Asha and others of the previous decade had locked themselves into such a secure position that there was very little room for others to enter.

However there were a few new music directors to make it big. Kalyanji Anandji, R.D. Burman and Lakshmikant-Pyarelal are a few who would make their way into the business in a big way during this period.

THE RECENT SHAKEUP

The film industry was again shaken in the 80's and 90's. Many new developments would both adversely effect traditional businesses, yet present new opportunities for others.

The television has had a tremendous effect on this genre. In the 1970's the Indian Government began a project to introduce the TV throughout India. Unlike many other countries, the TV (known as "Doordarshan") is owned by the Government. The widespread introduction was originally for "educational purposes" (i.e., propaganda) and was not very inspiring. The original programming was not a commercial threat to the Indian film industry. However during the 80's and 90's, under political and economic pressure, the television began to open up to private productions. Such independent productions proved to be very popular and began to adversely effect cinema attendance. It also gave the music producers an alternative outlet for their musical productions.

Other factors effecting Indian film songs were the problems within the Bombay film world. For many decades, Bombay monopolized the Hindi film industry and therefore controlled the lion's share of India's film music. However, increased cost of production, rising trade unionism and organized extortion rackets working under the ruling Siv Sena Party have decimated this industry. (Although the Siv Sena Party is no longer in power, the effects of racketeering still remain.) Today a large number of Hindi films and film songs are being produced in Madras where conditions are more favorable. This shift has given a major boost to Madras based music directors such as A. R. Rahman and playback singers such as S. P. Balasubrahmanyam.

The introduction of the VCR and the satellite / cable networks has also impacted the film Industry. Unlike the standard TV, the satellite / cable networks are all private sector undertakings. Curiously enough the introduction of the satellite has had the effect of internationalizing both the production and consumption of film style commercial music.

There are other factors that have shaken the industry. Overproduction of cinema houses in the 70's and 80's coupled with ever increasing entertainment taxes have made it difficult for many theatre owners to survive. This has shaken the distribution networks.

The result is that the nature of "filmi sangeet" is not as well defined as it once was. The creation of alternative media along with the decimation of the traditional Indian film industry has produced an interesting business and artistic environment. It appears that film music is in the process of spawning a number of new and related genre. However their definition is not yet clear