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Khandoba, (Marathi: - Khaob) also known as Khanderao, Khanderaya,Malhari Martand,Malanna, Mailar Malanna, Mailara Linga, and Mallu Khan is a regional Hindu deity, worshipped as Mrtanda Bhairava, a form of Shiva, mainly in theDeccan plateau of India, especially in the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka. He is the most popular family deity in Maharashtra.[1] He is also the patron deity of warrior, farming, herding as well as some Brahmin (priest) castes, the hunters and gatherers of the hills and forests. The cult of Khandoba has linkages with Vaishnava and Jain traditions, and also assimilates all communities irrespective of caste, including Muslims. Khandoba is sometimes identified with Mallanna of Andhra Pradesh and Mailara of Karnataka. The worship of Khandoba developed during the 9th and 10th centuries from a folk deity into a composite god possessing the attributes of Shiva, Bhairava, Surya and Karttikeya(Skanda). He is depicted either in the form of a Lingam, or as an image riding on a bull or a horse. The foremost centre of Khandoba worship is Jejuri in Maharashtra. The legends of Khandoba, found in the text Malhari Mahatmya and also narrated in folk songs, revolve around his victory over demons Mani-malla and his marriages.
The name "Khandoba" comes from the words "khadga" (sword), the weapon used by Khandoba to kill the demons, and "ba" (father). "Khanderaya" means "king Khandoba". The name "Mallari" or "Malhari" is split as "Malla" and "ari" (enemy), thus meaning "enemy of the demon Malla". Malhatri Mahatmya records Martanda Bhairava, pleased with the bravery of Malla, takes the name "Mallari" (the enemy of Malla).[2] Other names include Khandu Gavda, Mhalsa-kant ("husband of Mhalsa") and Jejurica Vani.[3]
In a popular oleograph representation of Khandoba,[4] Mhalsa is seated in front of Khandoba on his white horse. Mhalsa is piercing a demon's chest with a spear, while a dog is biting his thigh and the horse is hitting his head. The other demon is grabbing the reins of the horse and attacking Khandoba with a club as Khandoba is dismounting the horse and attacking the demon with his sword. In other representations, Khandoba is seen seated on a horse with the heads of demons trod under the horse's hooves or their heads under Khandoba's knees.[5]
In murtis (idols), Khandoba or Mailara is depicted as having four arms, carrying a damaru(drum), Trishula (trident), Bhandara-patra (turmeric powder-filled bowl) and khadga (sword). Khandoba's images are often dressed as a Maratha Sardar,[6] or a Muslim pathan. Often, Khandoba is depicted as a warrior seated on horseback with one or both of his wives and accompanied with one or more dogs.[7] He is also worshipped as the aniconic Lingam, the symbol of Shiva.[8] Often in Khandoba temples, both representations of Khandoba " the aniconic lingam and the anthropomorphic horseback form.[7]
Legends of Khandoba generally tell about the battle between the deity and demons Malla and Mani. The principle written source of the legend is Malhari Mahatmya, which claims to be from the chapter Kshetra-kanda of the Sanskrit text Brahmanda Purana, but is not included in standard editions of the Purana.[9] R.C. Dhere and Sontheimer suggests that the Sanskrit Mahatmya was composed around 1460-1510 AD, mostly by a Deshastha Brahmin, to whom Khandoba is the family deity.[10]A version is also available in Marathi by Siddhapal Kesasri (1585).[11] Other sources include the later texts of Jayadri Mahatmya andMartanda Vijaya by Gangadhara (1821)[12] and the oral stories of the Vaghyas, bards of the god.[13]
The legend tell of the demon Malla and his younger brother Mani, who had gained the boon of invincibility from Brahma, creating chaos on the earth and harassing the sages. When the seven sages approached Shiva for protection after Indra and Vishnu confessed their incapability, Shiva assumed the form (Avatar) of Martanda Bhairava, as the Mahatmya calls Khandoba, riding theNandi bull, leading an army of the gods. Martanda Bhairava is described as shining like the gold and sun, covered in turmeric, three-eyed, with a crescent moon on his forehead.[14] The demon army was slaughtered by the gods and finally Khandoba killed Malla and Mani. While dying, Mani offers his white horse to Khandoba as an act of repentance and asks for a boon. The boon is that he be present in every shrine of Khandoba, that human-kind is bettered and that he be given an offering of goat flesh. The boon was granted, and thus he was transformed into ademigod. Malla, when asked by the deity if he asked for a boon, asks for the destruction of the world and human-flesh. Angered by the demon's request, Khandoba decapitates him, and his head falls at the temple stairs where it will trampled by devotees' feet. The legend further describes how two Lingas appeared at Prempuri, the place where the demons were killed.[15][16]
Oral stories continue the process of Sanskritization of Khandoba " his elevation from a folk deity to Shiva, a deity of the classical Hindu pantheon " that was initiated by the texts. Khandoba's wives Mhalsa and Banai are also identified with Shiva's classical Hindu wives Parvati and Ganga.[17] Hegadi Pradhan, the minister and brother-in-law of Khandoba and brother of Lingavat Vani Mhalsa,[18] the faithful dog that helps Khandoba kill the demons, the horse gifted by Mani and the demon brothers are considered avatars of Vishnu,Krishna, Nandi and the demons Madhu-Kaitabha respectively. Other myth variants narrate that Khandoba defeats a single demon named Manimalla, who offers his white horse, sometimes called Mani, to the god.[19] Other legends depict Mhalsa (or Parvati) and Banai or Banu (or Ganga) as futilely helping Khandoba in the battle to collect the blood of Mani, every drop of which was creating a new demon. Finally, the dog of Khandoba swallows all the blood. Sometimes, Mhalsa, or rarely Banai, is described as seated behind Khandoba on the horse and fighting with a sword or spear.[20]
The legends portray Khandoba as a king who rules from his fortress of Jejuri and holds court where he distributes gold. Also, king Khandoba goes on hunting expeditions, which often turn into "erotic adventures", and subsequent marriages.[21]
Khandoba has many wives who are women from many communities, who serve as cultural links between the god and the communities. He has five wives, Mhalsa and Banai/Banu/Banubai being the most important.[21]While Khandoba's first wife Mhalsa is from the high caste Lingavatmerchant (Vani) community, his second wife Banai is a Dhangar(shepherd caste). Mhalsa has had a regular ritualistic marriage with Khandoba. Banai, on the other hand, has a love marriage by capture with the god. Mhalsa is described as ugly, jealous and a good cook; Banai is erotic, resolute, but doesn't even know to cook. Often folk songs tell of their quarrels. Mhalsa represents "culture" and Banai "nature". The god king Khandoba stands between them.[22]
Khandoba's third wife, Rambai Shimpin, is a tailor woman from Belsarevillage who was a heavenly nymph or devangana and is sometimes identified with Banai. She is a prototype of the Muralis " the girls "married" to Khandoba. She is the wife who goes for hunting with her Lord. The fourth wife Phulai Malin, from a gardener caste, is a devout devotee of Khandoba and is visited by him at "Davna Mal" (field ofsouthernwood), a herb said to be dear to Khandoba. The fifth wife, Candai Bhagavin, is a Muslim or a Telin, and a member of the oilpresser caste.[23] Apart from these, Muralis " girls offered to Khandoba " are considered as wives or concubines of the god.[24][25]
Mallana (Mallikaarjuna) of Andhra Pradesh and Mailara of Karnataka are sometimes identified with Khandoba (Mallari, Malhari, Mairaj). Khandoba is also associated with Bhairava, who is connected with Brahmanicide (murder of a Brahmin).[26] Devotees emphasize that Khandoba is a full avatar of Shiva, and not a partial avatar like Bhairava or Virabhadra. He accepts the attributes of the demon king " his horse, weapons and royal insignia.[27]
Sontheimer stresses the association of Khandoba with clay and termite mounds. Oral legends tell of Khandoba's murtis being found in termite mounds or "made of earth".[28] According to Sontheimer, Martanda Bhairava (Khandoba) is a combination of the sun god Suryaand Shiva, who is associated with the moon. Martanda ("blazing orb") is a name of Surya, while Bhairava is a form of Shiva.[25][29]Sundays, gold and turmeric, which are culturally associated with the sun, form an important part of the rituals of Khandoba.[25][29]Sontheimer associates the worship of the Sun as termite mounds for fertility and his role as a healer to Khandoba's role as granter of fertility in marriages and to the healing powers of turmeric, which the latter holds.[29]
Another theory identifies Karttikeya (Skanda) with Khandoba.[30] The hypotheses of the theory rests upon the similarities between Skanda and Khandoba, namely their association with mountains and war, similarity of their names and weapons (the lance of Skanda and the sword of Khandoba) and both having two principal wives.[24] Other symbols associated with Khandoba are the dog and horse.[31]
Though Shiva is worshipped across Maharashtra in his original form, some Maharashtrian communities prefer to worship him in form of his avatars, Khandoba being the most popular.[32] He is the most popular Kuldevta (family deity) in Maharashtra.[1] One of the most widely worshipped gods of the Deccan plateau, Khandoba is considered as "the premier god of Sakama bhakti (wish-granting devotion) and one of the most powerful deities responsive to vows (navas)".[32] He is worshipped by the vast majority of Marathi Hindu people from all strata of that society. He is the patron deity of warrior, farming, herding as well as someBrahmin (priest) castes, the hunters and gatherers of the hills and forests, merchants and kings. The cult of Khandoba in the Deccan principally consists of peasant classes Marathasand Kunabis, shepherd Dhangars, village guards and watchmen Ramoshis " a "Denotified tribe",[33][34] the former "untouchable" Mahars and Mangs, fisher-folk Kolis, balutedar castes like gardeners (Mali) and tailors (Shimpi), though it also includes of a few Brahmins and even some Muslims.[35][36] Although Brahmin presence is nominal in his cult, Deshastha Brahmins,[26][37] as well as the Kokanastha Brahmins - in Nashik and Satara - do worship Khandoba, some imitating the Deshastha Brahmins.[38] The Deshastha Brahmins, Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus,[37] as well as the royal families like Gaikwads and Holkarsworship Khandoba as their Kuldevta. He is also worshipped by Jains and Lingayats. He is viewed as a "king" of his followers.[39]
Khandoba is believed to be a kadak (fierce) deity, who causes troubles if not propitiated properly as per the family duties.[40] Khandoba is worshipped with Turmeric (Bhandr), Bel fruit-leaves, onions and other vegetables.[41] The deity is offered puran poli - a sweet or a simpler dish called bharit rodga of onion and brinjal.[42] Mostly a vegetarian naivedya (offering of food) is offered to Khandoba in the temples, though most devotees consider him a non-vegetarian and a goat flesh is offered to the deity outside the temple.[4]
An important part of the Khandoba-cult is navas, a vow to perform service to the god in return for a boon of good harvest, male child, financial success etc. On fulfilment of the navas, Khandoba was offered children or some devotees would afflict pain by hook-swinging or fire-walking.[43] This type of worship using navas is called Sakama Bhakti - worship done with an expectation of return and is considered "to be of a lower esteem".[44] But the most faithful bhaktas (devotees) are considered to be greedy only for the company of their Lord, Khandoba is also called bhukela - hungry for such true bhaktas in Martanda Vijaya.[45]
Boys called Vghy (or Waghya, literally "tigers") and girls called Murai were formerly dedicated to Khandoba, but now the practice of marrying girls to Khandoba is illegal.[41] The Vaghyas act as the bards of Khandoba and identify themselves with the dogs of Khandoba, while Muralis act as his courtesans (devanganas " nymphs or devadasis). The Vaghyas and their female counterparts Muralis sing and dance in honour of Khandoba and narrate his stories on jagarans " all night song-festivals, which are sometimes held after navasfulfilment.[43] Another custom was ritual-suicide by Viras (heroes) in the cult.[46] According to legend, an "untouchable" Mang (Matanga) sacrificed himself for the foundation of the temple at Jejuri to persuade Khandoba to stay at Jejuri forever.[45] Other practices in the cult include the belief that Khandoba possesses the body of a Vaghya or devrsi (shaman).[47][48]Another ritual in the cult is an act of chain-breaking in fulfilment of a vow or an annual family rite; the chain is identified with the snake around Shiva's neck, which was cut by the demons in the fight.[31] Another rite associated with the family duties to please Khandoba is the tali bharne, which is to be performed every full moon day. A tali (dish) is filled with coconuts, fruits, betel nuts, saffron, turmeric (Bhandar) and Bel leaves. Then, a coconut is placed on a pot filled with water and the pot is worshipped as an embodiment of Khandoba. Then, five persons lift the tali, place it repeatedly on the pot thrice, saying "Elkot" or "Khande rayaca Elkot". Then the coconut in the tali is broken and mixed with sugar or jaggery and given to friends and relatives. A gondhal is performed along with the tali bharne.[49] Agondhal is a ritualistic folk art in which the performer Gondhalis invoke the deities.
Khandoba is considered as the giver of fertility. Maharashtrian Hindu couples are expected to visit a Khandoba temple to obtain Khandoba's blessing on consummation of marriage. Traditional Maharashtrian families also organize a jagaran as part of the marriage ceremony, inviting the god to the marriage.[7] Copper figurines of Khandoba riding on a horse (sometimes with Mhalsa) are worshipped by devotees on a daily basis in the household shrine.
The Sanskrit Malhari Mahatmya suggests offerings of incense, lights, betel and animals to Khandoba. The Marathi version mentions offerings of meat and the worship by chedapatadi - "causing themselves to be cut", hook-swinging and self-mortification by viras. Marathi version calls this form of bhakti (devotion) as ugra (violent, demonic) bhakti. Martanda vijaya narrates about Rakshashi bhakti(demonic worship) by animal sacrifice and self " torture. Possession by Khandoba, in form of a wind, is lower demonic worship (pishachi worship). Sattvic worship, the purest form of worship, is believed to be feeding Khandoba in form of a Brahmin.[12]
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